A Comprehensive Review of CdTe and PbSe-Based Photovoltaic Materials: Synthesis Strategies, Processing Techniques, and Performance Optimization

Abstract

The increasing demand for sustainable and cost-effective energy solutions has intensified research into advanced photovoltaic materials beyond conventional silicon-based systems. Among emerging thin-film technologies, cadmium telluride (CdTe) has established itself as a commercially viable material, while lead selenide (PbSe) has gained attention for its unique optoelectronic properties and potential in next-generation photovoltaic applications. This review presents a comprehensive and critical analysis of CdTe and PbSe-based photovoltaic materials, focusing on their fundamental properties, synthesis techniques, processing strategies, and performance characteristics. The study highlights that CdTe exhibits a near-optimal bandgap, high absorption coefficient, and well-developed fabrication processes, enabling efficiencies exceeding 22% at the laboratory scale. In contrast, PbSe, particularly in quantum dot form, offers bandgap tunability and extended infrared absorption, with the potential for multiple exciton generation. However, its performance is currently limited by surface defects, charge transport constraints, and stability issues. A comparative evaluation reveals that while CdTe has reached a stage of performance optimization with incremental improvements, PbSe remains an emerging system requiring significant advancements in material engineering and device design. The review further emphasizes the critical role of synthesis and post-deposition processing, including doping, annealing, interface engineering, and defect passivation, in determining device efficiency and stability. Key challenges such as recombination losses, environmental concerns, and scalability limitations are discussed, along with future research directions. The integration of CdTe and PbSe in tandem and hybrid photovoltaic architectures is identified as a promising approach to enhance spectral utilization and surpass conventional efficiency limits. Overall, this review provides a comprehensive understanding of the current status, challenges, and future potential of CdTe and PbSe-based photovoltaic systems, offering valuable insights for the development of high-efficiency, stable, and sustainable solar energy technologies.