A Review of Physics of Optical Sensors

Abstract

Optical sensors are fundamental components of modern measurement systems, enabling the detection of physical, chemical, and biological parameters through light–matter interaction. The physics of optical sensors is rooted in optics, electromagnetism, solid-state physics, and quantum mechanics, governing processes such as absorption, reflection, refraction, interference, scattering, and photoelectric conversion. Advances in optical materials, photonic structures, and optoelectronic devices have significantly improved sensor sensitivity, resolution, and robustness. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of the physical principles underlying optical sensors, covering major sensor types, transduction mechanisms, and material systems. A comparative evaluation of optical sensing technologies is provided, followed by a detailed discussion of performance limits, noise sources, and emerging trends. The review highlights the critical role of physics-driven design in advancing optical sensor technologies for applications ranging from industrial monitoring to biomedical diagnostics and environmental sensing.